| Theoretical
Foundation
To study and understand any culture, one needs to study
the context from which that culture evolves. “The
culture in which each of us lives influences and shapes
our feelings, attitudes, and responses to our experiences
and interactions with others. Because of our culture,
each of us has knowledge, beliefs, values, views, and
behaviors that we share with others” (Duffy and
Matikainen, n. d.).
What Is Culture?
Defining “culture” is a complex process
in any context, because it is a dynamic and continuously
evolving human phenomenon (Miraglia, Law, & Collins,
1999). Chamberlain and Landurand (1991) define culture
as, “the values, norms and traditions that affect
the way we perceive, interact and think about the world”
(p. 113). Culture shapes how students and their families
view themselves, and they interact with the world around
them. All humans have a culture including the US public
school teachers “who tend to be white and middle
class”(Lessow-Hurley, 2003,9) and who often claim
to have “no culture”.
Cultural
Diversity And Its Impact On Learning
The over-representation
of minority-language children in special education has
been a major issue in American education for a very
long time (International Reading Association, 2003).
In order to avoid misinterpreting cultural and linguistic
characteristics as behavioral and/or learning disorders,
it is important for all educators to understand these
characteristics.
Indeed, as Helmer and Eddy (2003) suggest, “An
appreciation and understanding of the way values and
beliefs can mandate what happens in given contexts greatly
enhances our ability to work with learners from many
cultures” (p.9). Thus, it is important for teachers
to recognize the implications of language and cultural
diversity in the context of teaching
and learning (Warger & Burnette, 2000).
Sensitivity to cultural variations and diversity requires educators to develop a deep understanding of their
own cultural values in order to be able to better relate
to the culture of others in a non-judgmental way. When
assessing students from different linguistic backgrounds,
it is crucial that educators become familiar with: (1)
the variety of cultures and ethnicities that the student’s
language may encompass and (2) the major characteristics
of the student’s native language.
There are variations from culture to culture and within
cultures. Kohls
(see table below for self assessment) has done extensive
research on how typically-American cultural values differ
from those of other countries and the chart below illustrates
his model of cultural values’ continuums (Kohls,
1984).
Kohl’s Cultural
Values Continuum
- highly identify
- somewhat identify
- identify equally with both
Source: Adapted from Kohls
(1984)
In order to appreciate the culture of others in a non-ethnocentric
and empathic way, educators must develop a deep understanding
of their own cultural values. When assessing students
from Portuguese-speaking
countries (Portuguese Language, 2004), it is crucial
that educators become familiar with:
- the essential cultural background information about
the Portuguese country of origin and its educational
system.
- the main characteristics of the Portuguese language,
and how these may influence English acquisition.
- the variety of cultures and ethnicities that Portuguese
language speakers encompass.
- the ways in which the cultural and ethnic heritage
of Portuguese language speakers differ from that of
the U.S. majority culture
Culture Versus
Ethnicity
It is also important to note that culture and ethnicity
are not synonymous. While culture relates to a shared
understanding of values and meanings, ethnicity relates
to common customs and traditions shared by those from
the same ethnic origins and from similar “racial”
roots within a society. For example, the principal
author of this website is Portuguese in terms of
her ethnicity, but is culturally best described as a
Portuguese-American (Lesley University, 2005).
Level Of Acculturation
Acculturation is “the process that occurs when
characteristics of a group are changed because of interaction
with another cultural or ethnic group” (Banks,
2002, p. 59). Immigrant or newcomer students in U.S.
classrooms vary in many different ways including their
level of acculturation (See “Stages of Acculturation”).
Students exhibit a variety of behaviors. These behaviors
are the expression of the experience of adapting to
a new cultural milieu and language.
You may wish to refer to
Catherine Collier’s (2002) assessment tool for
the Acculturation
Quick Screen which is available for a fee.
Stages Of Cultural
Adaptation
Learning a new language and adapting to a new culture
are challenges faced by the English Language learners
in U. S. schools. The literature indicates that individuals
experience distinct stages in the process of adapting
to a different culture (Brown, 1995); however, not all
persons advance through the stages in the same manner
(Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995).
These stages are characterized by typical behaviors
and emotions, and they range from elation, hyperactivity,
anxiety and initial disorientation to some degree of
adaptation. The intensity of these emotional responses
in school will vary depending on several factors such
as a welcoming class and school environment, and a
teacher that is culturally responsive. If students are
not given adequate support and/or their home culture
is not recognized and valued in the classroom, they
may experience personal challenges in the acculturation
process.
Stages of Cultural Adaptation:
| Stage
|
Descriptors
|
Possible
Behavior Manifestations |
| Euphoria
(initial contact) |
This is the
"honeymoon" period in which the individual
is enamored by new customs, food, sights and the
newness of the new and different culture. |
Students at
this stage experience much stimulation, fascination
and excitement with the new culture. Some may look
distractible and unfocused. They may experience
the silent period of second language acquisition.
|
| Culture
Shock |
At this stage,
individuals begin to notice cultural differences
and feel deprived of things familiar to their culture
of origin. The awareness of such differences may
be disorienting to the individual.This stage
usually lasts from several weeks to several months. |
Students
at this stage may experience difficulties with
self-esteem, depression, withdrawal, inattention
or hyperactivity. Moreover, some may feel fear
or loneliness.
Students at this stage are often, perceived or
erroneously diagnosed as having Attention Deficit
(Hyperactivity) Disorders. |
| Anomie |
This is a stage
of gradual recovery of equilibrium and the acknowledgment
of the differences of both cultures. This is also
referred to as culture stress. |
Students at
this stage may experience an identity crisis, where
one feels neither bound firmly to the native culture
nor yet adapted to the new culture. |
| Adaptation:
Assimilation or Acculturation |
Students
move into one of two directions--assimilation or
acculturation (Wilson-Portuondo, 2003).
|
Culturally
and linguistically diverse students who have reached
this stage, take a course of action in one of
two ways:
|
| Acculturation - individuals are able to find value and meaning in both cultures and identify with both. |
Acculturation: The student reacts positively towards both cultures and no longer feels the need to hide his/her linguistic and cultural background |
| Assimilation:
The student’s home cultural values
and beliefs are replaced by the new culture, leaving
behind the parents’ culture for example .
. . |
Assimilation:
The student usually over identifies with the host
culture, denies and hides his/her cultural and linguistic
background. This action can have negative implications
towards the student’s family. Students who
move in this direction experience negative self-esteem.
|
Cultural Identification Styles:
| Style
|
Description
|
Classroom
Implications |
| Crystallizing |
Identifies
mainly with home culture. |
May express
resistance in learning or associating with English.
Very rare! |
| Cross-Over |
Identifies
with predominant culture and rejects native culture.
|
Tends to
feel ashamed about the culture and language of
the home. Sometimes this is due to great suffering
for students who are refugees of war countries.
Other times this is pedagogically induced. |
| Criss
- Crosser |
Identifies
with both or multiple cultures. This is the ultimate
goal. |
Expresses comfort
with multiple languages and cultures. This may be
primarily due to experiencing culturally and linguistically
diverse teaching. |
Adapted from: Ventriglia, L. (1982).
Conversations of Miguel and Maria: How Children Learn
English as a Second Language: Implications for Classroom
Teaching. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Developmental
Stages Of Second Language Acquisition
It is essential to understand second language acquisition
stages as a natural developmental process when assessing
and teaching English language learners. Like first language
acquisition stages, any student learning a second language
needs to be supported and allowed to progress through
the following developmental stages of second language
acquisition:
| Stage
|
Descriptors
|
| Pre-Production
Or Comprehension Stage (THE SILENT PERIOD) |
- Engagement in active listening in the target
language.
- The learner is working hard to make sense
of the new language by observing its speakers.
- During this period the learner tries to understand
but does not yet speak.
- This initial stage may last for a few months.
NOTE: This is the most misunderstood
second language acquisition stage. At this developmental
second language level, some educators erroneously
perceive learners as refusing to speak, or resistant,
or diagnose them as having selective mutism, when
in fact their temporary silence is to be expected.
|
| Early
Production Stage |
Single words
and short phrases are produced. |
| Speech
Emergence Stage |
Meanings are
communicated while language forms still demonstrate
lack of full proficiency. |
| Intermediate
Fluency |
Both meaning
and form are approaching age-appropriate levels,
yet growth is still required in specific areas
(e.g. lexicon, syntax, pragmatic, overall fluency). |
| Age-Appropriate
Fluency |
Both meaning
and form are age appropriate. |
Adapted from: Cloud, N. &
Medeiros-Landurand, P. (1989). Multisystem:
systematic instructional planning for exceptional bilingual
students (SuDoc ED 1.310/2:396485) Division of Training,
Evaluation & School Services, Institute for Urban
and Minority Education, Teachers College, Columbia University
(U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research
and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.
Second Language
Acquisition and Disabilities
Second Language and Disabilities: Implications
for the Classroom
| Key
Concepts |
General
Implications |
Classroom
Implications |
| 1. There
is a common underlying language proficiency (language
assessment device) for first and second language
acquisition. |
1.
Speaking a language other than English
does not interfere with the acquisition
of English. |
1.
Speaking a language other than English
is not evidence of a disability. |
| 2.
Second language acquisition is similar,
although not identical, to first language acquisition. |
2.
Learning a second language takes time:Conversational
skills (BICS) are acquired in 1-2 years. Academic
language proficiency (CALP) is acquired in 5-7 years. Later research suggests that this can take as long as 10 years. |
2.
Many children are exited out of language
programs (English as a Second Language,Sheltered English Instruction, Bilingual) when they have only
acquired conversational skills. If they experience
academic problems, these are likely related to their
lack of academic language proficiency, not necessarily
related to cognitive deficits or learning disabilities. |
| 3.
Second (or third) language acquisition is a developmental
process, you cannot hasten it. |
3.
Children must be given adequate time to
acquire English skills.Conversational skills (BICS)
are acquired in 1-2 years. Academic language proficiency
(CALP) is acquired in 5-7 years. |
3.
As children are in the process of acquiring
English, they will make many errors. These are developmental
and should not be considered indications of a disorder. |
| 4.
Language is acquired (versus being taught
and learned). |
4.
Teachers should facilitate acquisition
rather than trying to teach language as a subject
via drill and practice. |
4.
Children’s language proficiency problems
can be pedagogically induced by the use of inadequate
methodologies. |
| 5.
The language a child speaks is related
to the quantity of the interaction s/he experiences
with adults. |
5.
Parents should be encouraged to speak to
their children in their native language, for obvious
reasons |
5.
If limited English proficient parents speak
English to their children, they may limit cognitive
development. Moreover, they present a model of English
that may need to be corrected. If this happens,
the children do not have disabilities. Their English
language (re)development is the responsibility of
regular classroom teachers. |
| 6.
Children must have a high level of linguistic
competence in at least one language to be communicatively
and academically successful. In the case of English
Language Learners, the native language is the foundation
upon which English competence is built. |
6.
Children must be given the opportunity
to develop interpersonal communication skills and
academic language proficiency in the native language
while learning English. |
6.
A child, whose native language skills are
significantly deviant from those of age levels peers
from the same speech and language community, is likely
to have speech and/or language disorder. |
| 7.
Some language minority students do not
qualify for bilingual education programs or English
as a second language programs because, although
they speak another language, they are considered
to be English proficient. |
7.
These students, even though they are considered
to be English proficient, may not have the same
level of English competence as do their Native English
speaking peers. Therefore, regular classroom teachers
need to continue to provide language development programs. |
7.
If language development programs are not
provided, students may experience communication
or achievement difficulties. These problems are
related to inappropriate instruction, not to the
presence of disability. |
| 8.
Some children will come to school with
language skills, which are appropriate and functional
for their speech and language community but are not adequate for schooling. |
8.
Teachers must accept and respect language
differences. They must also provide instruction
to develop the language skills needed to be successful
in the school context. The need for school language
development is typical of students from lower socioeconomic
environments. It may also be true of students who
learn English. The need for language development
may be present in the native language and/or in
English. |
8.
The education of children with language
differences is the responsibility of regular educators.
If teachers do not provide second language development,
students are likely candidates for remedial instruction
or special educational referral. If they do not
have disabilities, special education should refuse
to serve them. |
| 9.
Bilingual education programs allow students
to stay on grade level as they acquire the English
language |
9.
Students should not be prematurely exited
from bilingual or ESL language programs until they have
acquired academic language proficiency in English.
If they are exited before this, regular classroom
teachers must continue the student’s English
as a second language instruction. Since premature
exit is almost always the case, we must train
regular classroom teachers in ESL techniques.
|
9.
Students who are prematurely exited are
likely to experience academic difficulties. These
difficulties are pedagogically induced; they are
not learning disabilities.
If tested, children who have been exited prematurely
are likely to show an IQ-Achievement discrepancy.
This is not sufficient to inappropriately classify
the student as having a learning disability. |
| 10.
LEP children who have true disorders have
the right to bilingual instruction. |
10.
They should not be exited from bilingual
education. |
10.
Special education teachers must be trained
to provide native language and/or English as a second
language specially designed instruction. Placement
in an English language special education class,
without adaptation, does not provide appropriate
educational opportunities. |
Adapted from: Alba Ortiz, (n.d.).
Department of Special Education, College of Education,
University of Texas in Austin. |
